Nutritional, Bioactive Compounds, and Antioxidant Properties of Temanggung’s Robusta and Arabica Coffee By-products: A Comparative Chemometric Analysis

Galih Kusuma Aji, Achmad Sofian Nasori, Budiyanto Budiyanto, Dicki Rachman, Mohammad Nafila Alfa, Priyo Atmaji, Maya Damayanti Rahayu, Devi Permatasari, Bambang Marwoto, Fitrah Ernawati, Muhamaludin Muhamaludin, Gigih Atmaji

Abstract

Coffee by-products, including coffee husk and coffee pulp, have attracted increasing interest as a source of nutrition and bioactive compounds. This study aimed to investigate the different nutritional composition and bioactive compounds of coffee by-products obtained from arabica and robusta coffee processed in Temanggung, Indonesia. Four samples were evaluated: CHA (dried coffee husk arabica), CHR (dried coffee husk robusta), CPA (dried coffee pulp arabica), and CPR (dried coffee pulp robusta). Macronutrients, minerals, Total Polyphenol Content (TPC), Total Flavonoid Content (TFC), and antioxidant activity were measured. In addition, untargeted high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) was employed to characterize the putative annotated bioactive compounds. The results showed that macronutrients, except fat content, differed significantly among samples, and minerals also differed significantly among samples. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) revealed a segregation among the samples, with a total PC of 83.8% in explaining the differentiation. In addition, HRMS analysis putatively annotated 84 bioactive compounds, which, in PCA, explained 77.1% of the total variance and showed distinct clustering among samples. Orthogonal Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (OPLS-DA) further identified differences in annotated metabolites related to antioxidant activity. Overall, this study shows that coffee husk and pulp contain valuable nutritional and bioactive compounds and may represent promising raw materials for valorizing coffee by-products and developing value-added functional ingredients.

Keywords

References

[1] V. V. Freitas et al., “Influence of roasting levels on chemical composition and sensory quality of Arabica and Robusta coffee: A comparative study,” Food Bioscience, vol. 59, Jun. 2024, Art. no. 104171, doi: 10.1016/j.fbio.2024.104171.

[2] J.-A. Mora-Villalobos et al., “Tropical agroindustrial biowaste revalorization through integrative biorefineries—review part I: coffee and palm oil by-products,” Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery, vol. 13, pp. 1469-1487, Jan. 2023, doi: 10.1007/s13399-021-01442-9.

[3] K. Pongsiriyakul et al., “Upcycling coffee waste: key industrial activities for advancing circular economy and overcoming commercialization challenges,” Processes, vol. 12, no. 12, 2024, Art. no. 2851, doi: 10.3390/pr12122851.

[4] R. Rusinek et al., “Effect of climate, growing region, country of origin, and post-harvest processing on the of content chlorogenic acids (CGAs) and aromatic compounds in roasted coffee beans,” Scientific Reports, vol. 15, no. 1, 2025, Art. no. 30117, doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-16126-x.

[5] I. Kurniasari et al., “The physical properties of Arabica and Robusta coffee beans from Temanggung and Lampung,” in IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, vol. 1246, no. 1, 2023, Art. no. 012056, doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/1246/1/012056.

[6] A. M. Marie, M. I. Tan, and M. Y. Abduh, “Fermentation of Robusta and Arabica coffee pulp using Leuconostoc mesenteroides: Antioxidant activity, chemical profiling, and anti-inflammatory potency,” Food and Humanity, vol. 6, May 2026, Art. no. 101000, doi: 10.1016/j.foohum.2026.101000.

[7] M. Hoseini, S. Cocco, C. Casucci, V. Cardelli, and G. Corti, “Coffee by-products derived resources. A review,” Biomass and Bioenergy, vol. 148, May 2021, Art. no. 106009, doi: 10.1016/j.biombioe.2021.106009.

[8] M. A. Ali, and S. Bhowmik, “Bioactive compounds in coffee husk: extraction, functional properties, applications, and sustainable approach in circular economy,” RSC Sustainability, vol. 3, no. 10, pp. 4410-4425, 2025, doi: 10.1039/d5su00531k.

[9] V. Phakeenuya, T. Phusantisampan, and M. Sriariyanun, “Computational screening and molecular docking analysis of bioactive peptides from spent coffee grounds as potential α-Glucosidase and α-Amylase inhibitors for antidiabetic therapy,” Applied Science and Engineering Progress, vol. 19, no. 1, 2026, Art. no. 7880, doi: 10.14416/j.asep.2025.09.002.

[10] R. M. Alonso-Salces, F. Serra, F. Reniero, and K. HÉberger, “Botanical and geographical characterization of green coffee (coffea arabica and coffea canephora): chemometric evaluation of phenolic and methylxanthine contents,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 57, no. 10, pp. 4224-4235, 2009, doi: 10.1021/jf8037117.

[11] S. M. Goulefack, E. N. Happi, W. D. T. Tsopgni, B. M. N. Nkouayeb, S. C. P. Tameye, and A. G. B. Azebaze, “Bioactive constituents from Coffea canephora Pierre ex A. Froehner (Rubiaceae),” Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, vol. 105, Dec. 2022, Art. no. 104514, doi: 10.1016/j.bse.2022.104514.

[12] M. M. Artêncio, A. L. L. Cassago, R. K. da Silva, J. de M. E. Giraldi, and F. B. da Costa, “Untargeted metabolomic approach based on UHPL-ESI-HRMS to investigate metabolic profiles of different coffea species and terroir,” Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia, vol. 33, no. 6, pp. 1251-1262, 2023, doi: 10.1007/s43450-023-00454-y.

[13] A. H. Sarosa, V. Nurhadianty, N. H. F. N. Dian, F. N. Anita, A. F. Noerdinna, and S. D. A. Rizqy, “The kinetic study of dampit robusta coffee caffeine degradation by Saccharomyces cerevisiae,” Applied Science and Engineering Progress, vol. 17, no. 1, 2024, Art. no. 6891, doi: 10.14416/j.asep.2023.07.004.

[14] M. Jiménez-Gutiérrez, S. Camacho-Marín, A. Muñoz-González, M. Viñas, A. Irías-Mata, and P. Esquivel, “Bioactive compounds profile and extraction yields in coffee (Coffea arabica L.) by-products: a comparative analysis using ethanol, methanol and acetone,” Pure and Applied Chemistry, vol. 98, no. 2, pp. 233-247, 2026, doi: 10.1515/pac-2024-0318.

[15] D. Pröfrock, and A. Prange, “Inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) for quantitative analysis in environmental and life sciences: a review of challenges, solutions, and trends,” Applied Spectroscopy, vol. 66, no. 8, pp. 843-868, 2012, doi: 10.1366/12-06681.

[16] A. S. Nasori et al., “Evaluation of bioactive compounds, antioxidant, and anti-diabetic activities in hexane and supercritical carbon dioxide extracts of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) leaves,” Science and Technology Indonesia, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 250-261, Jan. 2025, doi: 10.26554/sti.2025.10.1.250-261.

[17] M. D. Rahayu et al., “Phytoconstituents and bioactivities among different parts of Ardisia humilis Vahl.: antioxidant activity and anticancer potential via in vitro and molecular docking approaches,” Beni-Suef University Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, vol. 15, no. 1, 2026, Art. no. 26, doi: 10.1186/s43088-026-00749-8.

[18] A. Windarsih, Suratno, H. D. Warmiko, A. W. Indrianingsih, A. Rohman, and Y. I. Ulumuddin, “Untargeted metabolomics and proteomics approach using liquid chromatography-Orbitrap high resolution mass spectrometry to detect pork adulteration in Pangasius hypopthalmus meat,” Food Chemistry, vol. 386, Aug. 2022, Art. no. 132856, doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.132856.

[19] M. D. Rahayu et al., “The impact of 70% ethanol extract and its fractions on phenolic content, flavonoid content, and antioxidant potency of Ardisia humilis Vahl leaves,” in AIP Conference Proceedings, vol. 3248, no. 1, 2025, Art. no. 030004, doi: 10.1063/5.0236878.

[20] Ø Hammer, D. A. T. Harper, and P. D. Ryan, “ Paleontological statistics software package for education and data analysis,” Paleontologia Electronica, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 1-9, 2001.

[21] J. Chong et al., “MetaboAnalyst 4.0: towards more transparent and integrative metabolomics analysis,” Nucleic Acids Research, vol. 46, no. W1, pp. W486-W494, 2018, doi: 10.1093/nar/gky310.

[22] Y. Pujiawati, L. Khotijah, and I. K. G. Wiryawan, “Screening of antioxidant activities and their bioavailability of tropical plants,” in IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, vol. 1182, no. 1, 2023, Art. no. 012083, doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/1182/1/012083.

[23] H. T. T. Nguyen, H. M. Le, N. T. Vu, and H. S. Nguyen, “Effect of pyrolysis temperature and time of Robusta coffee husk on yield and product characteristics,” Journal of the Serbian Chemical Society, vol. 90, no. 11, pp. 1401-1413, 2025, doi: 10.2298/JSC241002005N.

[24] M. S. Razzaque, and S. J. Wimalawansa, “Minerals and human health: from deficiency to toxicity,” Nutrients, vol. 17, no. 3, 2025, Art. no. 454, doi: 10.3390/nu17030454.

[25] General Standard for Contaminants and Toxins in Food and Feed, Codex Standard CXS 193-1995, 2023.

[26] I. T. Jolliffe, and J. Cadima, “Principal component analysis: a review and recent developments,” Philosophical Transactions A, vol. 374, no. 2065, Apr. 2016, Art. no. 20150202, doi: 10.1098/rsta.2015.0202.

[27] S. Rohaya, S. H. Anwar, A. B. Amhar, A. Sutriana, and M. Muzaifa, “Antioxidant activity and physicochemical composition of coffee pulp obtained from three coffee varieties in Aceh, Indonesia,” in IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, vol. 1182, no. 1, 2023, Art. no. 012063, doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/1182/1/012063.

[28] A. Fastovets, R. Barabash, O. Syrotchuk, S. Alekseev, and M. Ischenko, “Classical vs modified folin–ciocalteu assay for total phenolic content determination in honey,” ACS Food Science & Technology, vol. 6, no. 8, pp. 2267–2272, 2026, doi: 10.1021/acsfoodscitech.6c00166.

[29] A. Rahmawati, D. Nofitasari, M. Rosmiati, I. Taufik, and M. Y. Abduh, “Evaluation of phenolic compounds, antioxidant activity, and sensory analysis of commercial cascara from different locations in Indonesia,” Food and Humanity, vol. 5, Dec. 2025, Art. no. 100791, doi: 10.1016/j.foohum.2025.100791.

[30] C. Himri et al., “A comparative study of phenolic compounds, and the antioxidant properties of arabica coffee beans (coffea arabica) and robusta coffee beans (coffea canephora) and their by-products,” Tropical Journal of Natural Product Research, vol. 9, no. 8, pp. 3568 - 3580, Aug. 2025, doi: 10.26538/tjnpr/v9i8.17.

[31] J. Boccard, and D. N. Rutledge, “A consensus orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) strategy for multiblock Omics data fusion,” Analytica Chimica Acta, vol. 769, pp. 30-39, Mar. 2013, doi: 10.1016/j.aca.2013.01.022.

[32] A. Scalbert, I. T. Johnson, and M. Saltmarsh, “Polyphenols: antioxidants and beyond,” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 81, no. 1, pp. 215S-217S, Jan. 2005, doi: 10.1093/ajcn/81.1.215S.

[33] N. Liang, W. Xue, P. Kennepohl, and D. D. Kitts, “Interactions between major chlorogenic acid isomers and chemical changes in coffee brew that affect antioxidant activities,” Food Chemistry, vol. 213, pp. 251-259, Dec. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.06.041.

[34] Y. Zhao, W. He, Y. Yang, R. Liu, X. Wang, and J. Bai , “Phytochemical constituents and pharmacological properties of fraxinus spp.: a review,” Chemistry & Biodiversity, vol. 22, no. 7, 2025, Art. no. e202402879, doi: 10.1002/cbdv.202402879.

Full Text: PDF

DOI: 10.14416/j.asep.2026.10.002

Refbacks

There are currently no refbacks.

Username
Password
Remember me