Page Header

Geopolymer Synthesis and Alkaline Activation Technique of Fly Ash and Slag Source Material: A Review

Ibukun Erunkulu, Goitseone Malumbela, Oluseyi Philip Oladijo

Abstract


The advent of geopolymer and its synthesis from industrial waste rich in silicon and aluminum activated by an alkaline solution has proven a viable alternative to ordinary Portland cement. This review presents background on alkaline activation, geopolymerization technology as well as industrial aluminosilicate-based geopolymeric products produced from a range of low to high calcium fly ash, and metallurgical slags in different combinations. Important synthesis conditions, such as the nature of the source material, the type of alkaline activator, the curing condition, and the mixing procedure were effective determinant factors for desired properties in products. The significance of these parameters on the mechanical performance of products relative to each other is discussed. Advances in synthesis, material processing, and production, such as solid-state mechanism and one-part activation are also presented. Future recommendations on other aluminosilicate sources to be considered are highlighted.

Keywords



[1] United Nations, “Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development,” 2015. [Online]. Available: http://www.un.org

[2] J. G. J. Olivier, G. Janssens-Maenhout, M. Muntean, and J. Peters, “Trends in Global CO2 Emissions: 2016 Report,” PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, The Hague, Netherlands, 2315, 2016.
[3] G. Ishwarya, B. Singh, S. Deshwal, and S. K. Bhattacharyya, “Effect of sodium carbonate/sodium silicate activator on the rheology, geopolymerization and strength of fly ash/slag geopolymer pastes,” Cement and Concrete Composites, vol. 97, pp. 226–238, 2019.

[4] M. T. Junaid, “Performance of Geopolymer concrete at elevated temperatures,” Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Australia, 2015.

[5] J. L. Provis and J. S. J. V. Deventer, “Introduction to geopolymers,” in Geopolymers: Structures, Processing, Properties and Industrial Applications. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead, 2009.

[6] A. Hassan, M. Arif, and M. Shariq, “Use of geopolymer concrete for a cleaner and sustainable environment – A review of mechanical properties and microstructure,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 223, pp. 704–728, Jun. 2019.

[7] J. L. Provis, A. Palomo, and C. Shi, “Advances in understanding alkali-activated materials,” Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 78, pp. 110–125, 2015.

[8] P. Duxson, J. L. Provis, G. C. Lukey, and J. S. J. van Deventer, “The role of inorganic polymer technology in the development of ‘green concrete,” Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 37, no. 12, pp. 1590–1597, Dec. 2007.

[9] I. Phummiphan, S. Horpibulsuk, T. Phoo-ngernkham, A. Arulrajah, and S.-L. Shen, “Marginal lateritic soil stabilized with calcium carbide residue and fly ash geopolymers as a sustainable pavement base material,” Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 1–10, 2017.

[10] J. Davidovits, Geopolymer Chemistry and Applications. France: Institut Geopolymere, 2008.

[11] C. Panagiotopoulou, E. Kontori, T. Perraki, and G. Kakali, “Dissolution of aluminosilicate minerals and by-products in alkaline media,” Journal of Materials Science, vol. 42, no. 9, pp. 2967–2973, 2007.

[12] A. Palomo and A. Fernández-Jiménez, “Alkaline activation, procedure for transforming fly ash into new materials. Part 1: Applications,” in World Coal Ash Conference, 2011, pp. 1–14.

[13] H. H. Merinkline, S. M. Devi, and C. F. Christy, “Fresh and hardened properties of fly ash based geopolymer concrete with copper slag,” International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 1–7, 2013.

[14] I. Garcia-Lodeiro, A. Palomo, and A. Fernández- Jiménez, “Crucial insights on the mix design of alkali-activated cement-based binders,” in Handbook of Alkali-Activated Cements, Mortars and Concretes, Cambridge, UK: Woodhead, 2014, pp. 49–73.

[15] J. L. Provis, A. Palomo, and C. Shi, “Advances in understanding alkali-activated materials,” Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 78, Part A, pp. 110–125, 2015.

[16] C. Shi, A. F. Jiménez, and A. Palomo, “New cements for the 21st century: The pursuit of an alternative to Portland cement,” Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 41, no. 7, pp. 750–763, 2011.

[17] A. Nikolov, I. Rostovsky, and H. Nugteren, “Geopolymer materials based on natural zeolite,” Case Studies in Construction Materials, vol. 6, pp. 198–205, Mar. 2017.

[18] S. Ahmari and L. Zhang, “The properties and durability of alkali-activated masonry units,” in Handbook of Alkali-Activated Cements, Mortars and Concretes, Cambridge, UK: Woodhead, 2014, pp. 643–660.

[19] M. F. Nuruddin, A. B. Malkawi, A. Fauzi, B. S. Mohammed, and H. M. Almattarneh, “Evolution of geopolymer binders: A review,” in International Conference on Innovative Research, 2016, vol. 133, pp. 1–8.

[20] P. N. Lemougna, K. J. D. MacKenzie, G. N. L. Jameson, H. Rahier, and U. F. Chinje Melo, “The role of iron in the formation of inorganic polymers (geopolymers) from volcanic ash: A 57Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy study,” Journal of Material Science, vol. 48, no. 15, pp. 5280–5286, 2013.

[21] Y. Wu, B. Lu, T. Bai, H. Wang, Y. Zhang, L. Cai, C. Jiang, and W. Wang, “Geopolymer, green alkali activated cementitious material: Synthesis, applications and challenges,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 224, no. 206, pp. 930–949, 2019.

[22] K. Boonserm, V. Sata, K. Pimraksa, and P. Chindaprasirt, “Improved geopolymerization of bottom ash by incorporating fly ash and using waste gypsum as additive,” Cement and Concrete Composite, vol. 34, no. 7, pp. 819–824, 2012.

[23] Y. Liu, C. Shi, Z. Zhang, and N. Li, “An overview on the reuse of waste glasses in alkali-activated materials,” Resources, Conservation and Recycling, vol. 144, Dec. 2018, pp. 297–309, 2019.

[24] H. Xu, “Geopolymerisation of aluminosilicate minerals,” Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Australia, 2002.

[25] S. V. Patankar, Y. M. Ghugal, and S. S. Jamkar, “Mix design of fly ash based geopolymer concrete,” in Advances in Structural Engineering: Materials, 2015, vol. 3.

[26] M. Jain, “Use and properties of blast furnace slag as a building material- A review,” International Journal of Recent Contribution from Engineering Science & IT, vol. 2, no. 4, 2014, Art. no. 54.

[27] M. Criado, X. Ke, J. L. Provis, and S. A. Bernal, “Alternative inorganic binders based on alkali-activated metallurgical slags,” in Sustainable and Nonconventional Construction Materials using Inorganic Bonded Fiber Composites, Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 2017, pp. 185–220.

[28] E. Kamseu, V. Alzari, D. Nuvoli, D. Sanna, I. Lancellotti, A. Mariani, and C. Leonelli, “Dependence of the geopolymerization process and end-products to the nature of solid precursors: Challenge of the sustainability,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 278, pp. 1–13, 2021.

[29] S. Onisei, K. Lesage, B. Blanpain, and Y. Pontikes, “Early age microstructural transformations of an inorganic polymer made of fayalite slag,” Journal of American Ceramic Society, vol. 98, no. 7, pp. 2269–2277, 2015.

[30] X. Ke, S. A. Bernal, and J. L. Provis, “Controlling the reaction kinetics of sodium carbonate-activated slag cements using calcined layered double hydroxides,” Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 81, pp. 24–37, 2016.

[31] A. Fauzi, M. F. Nuruddin, A. B. Malkawi, M. M. Al Bakri Abdullah, and B. S. Mohammed, “Effect of alkaline solution to fly ash ratio on geopolymer mortar properties,” Key Engineering Materials, vol. 733, pp. 85–88, 2017.

[32] Y. Ling, “Proportion and performance evaluation of fly ash-based geopolymer,” Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering, Iowa State University, 2018.

[33] P. De Silva, K. Sagoe-Crenstil, and V. Sirivivatnanon, “Kinetics of geopolymerization: Role of Al2O3 and SiO2,” Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 512–518, 2007.

[34] W. K. Part, M. Ramli, and C. B. Cheah, “An overview on the influence of various factors on the properties of geopolymer concrete derived from industrial byproducts,” in Handbook of Low Carbon Concrete. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 2017, pp. 263–334.

[35] B. V. Rangan, “Geopolymer concrete for environmental protection,” Indian Concrete Journal, vol. 88, no. 4, pp. 41–59, 2014.

[36] K. Arunkumar, M. Muthukannan, and A. S. Kumar, “Cleaner environment approach by the utilization of low calcium wood ash in geopolymer concrete,” Applied Science and Engineering Progress, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 1–13, 2022, doi: 10.14416/j.asep.2021.06.005.

[37] S. A. Bernal, J. L. Provis, R. Mejía de Gutiérrez, and J. S. J. van Deventer, “Accelerated carbonation testing of alkali-activated slag/metakaolin blended concretes: Effect of exposure conditions,” Materials and Structures, vol. 48, no. 3, pp. 653– 669, 2014.

[38] M. A. M. Ariffin, M. W. Hussin, and M. A. R. Bhutta, “Mix design and compressive strength of geopolymer concrete containing blended ash from agro-industrial wastes,” Advanced Materials Research, vol. 339, no. 1, pp. 452–457, 2011.

[39] S. M. Park, J. H. Seo, and H. K. Lee, “Binder chemistry of sodium carbonate-activated CFBC fly ash,” Materials and Structures, vol. 51, no. 3, pp. 1–10, 2018.

[40] Z. Zhang, “The effects of physical and chemical properties of fly ash on the manufacture of geopolymer foam concretes,” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern Queensland, Australia, 2014.

[41] A. L. Wijaya, J. Jaya Ekaputri, and Triwulan, “Factors influencing strength and setting time of fly ash based-geopolymer paste,” in MATEC Web Conferences, vol. 138, 2017, pp. 1–9.

[42] N. W. Chen-tan, “Geopolymer from a Western Australian fly ash,” Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Imaging and Applied Physics, Curtin University of Technology, 2010.

[43] Z. Zhang, J. L. Provis, A. Reid, and H. Wang, “Fly ash-based geopolymers: The relationship between composition, pore structure and efflorescence,” Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 64, pp. 30–41, 2014.

[44] A. Bajpai and A. Tiwari, “Fly ash activation using sodium carbonate (Na2CO3),” International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 964–967, 2021.

[45] R. P. Williams, “Optimising geopolymer formation,” Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Curtin University, 2015.

[46] X. Li, X. Ma, S. Zhang, and E. Zheng, “Mechanical properties and microstructure of class C fly ash-based geopolymer paste and mortar,” Materials, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 1485–1495, 2013.

[47] M. K. Dludlu, B. Oboirien, and R. Sadiku, “Micostructural and mechanical properties of geopolymers synthesized from three coal fly ashes from South Africa,” Energy and Fuels, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 1712–1722, 2017.

[48] A. Fernández-Jiménez, A. Palomo, and M. Criado, “Microstructure development of alkaliactivated fly ash cement: A descriptive model,” Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 35, no. 6, pp. 1204–1209, 2005.
[49] A. A. Aliabdo, A. E. M. Abd Elmoaty, and M. A. Emam, “Factors affecting the mechanical properties of alkali activated ground granulated blast furnace slag concrete,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 197, pp. 339–355, 2019.

[50] E. Kränzlein, J. Harmel, H. Pöllmann, and W. Krcmar, “Influence of the Si/Al ratio in geopolymers on the stability against acidic attack and the immobilization of Pb2+ and Zn2+,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 227, pp. 1–9, 2019.

[51] O. K. Wattimena, Antoni, and D. Hardjito, “A review on the effect of fly ash characteristics and their variations on the synthesis of fly ash based geopolymer,” AIP Conference Proceedings, vol. 1887, 2017, Art. no. 020041.

[52] F. Puertas, S. Martínez-Ramírez, S. Alonso, and T. Vázquez, “Alkali-activated fly ash/slag cements. Strength behaviour and hydration products,” Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 30, no. 10, pp. 1625–1632, 2000.

[53] S. A. Bernal, R. S. Nicolas, J. S. J. van Deventer, and J. L. Provis, “Alkali-activated slag cements produced with a blended sodium carbonate/ sodium silicate activator,” Advances in Cement Research, vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 262–273, 2015.

[54] O. R. Ogirigbo and L. Black, “Chloride binding and diffusion in slag blends: Influence of slag composition and temperature,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 149, pp. 816–825, Oct. 2017.
[55] S. Puligilla and P. Mondal, “Role of slag in microstructural development and hardening of fly ash-slag geopolymer,” Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 70–80, 2013.

[56] S. K. Nath and S. Kumar, “Influence of iron making slags on strength and microstructure of fly ash geopolymer,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 38, pp. 924–930, 2013.

[57] Y. Pontikes, L. Machiels, S. Onisei, L. Pandelaers, D. Geysen, P. T. Jones, and B. Blanpain, “Slags with a high Al and Fe content as precursors for inorganic polymers,” Applied Clay Science, vol. 73, no. 1, pp. 93–102, 2013.

[58] B. Chen, J. Wang, and J. Zhao, “Effect of sodium aluminate dosage as a solid alkaline activator on the properties of alkali-activated slag paste,” Advances in Materials Science and Engineering, vol. 2021, pp. 1–13, 2021, Art. no. 6658588.

[59] K. Komnitsas, D. Zaharaki, and V. Perdikatsis, “Geopolymerisation of low calcium ferronickel slags,” Journal of Materials Science, vol. 42, no. 9, pp. 3073–3082, 2007.

[60] Z. Yan, Z. Sun, J. Yang, H. Yang, Y. Ji, and K. Hu, “Mechanical performance and reaction mechanism of copper slag activated with sodium silicate or sodium hydroxide,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 266, pp. 1–14, 2021.

[61] T. Revathi and R. Jeyalakshmi, “geopolymer based on borax modified water glass activated Fly ash- GGBS blend of geopolymer based on borax modified water glass activated Fly ash-GGBS blend,” Materials Research Express, vol. 6, pp. 1–14, 2019.

[62] S. Ukritnukun, P. Koshy, A. Rawal, A. Castel, and C. C. Sorrell, “Predictive model of setting times and compressive strengths for low-alkali, ambient-cured, fly ash/slag-based geopolymers,” Minerals, vol. 10, no. 10, pp. 1–21, 2020.

[63] Radhakrishna, “Design and properties of fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, silica fume and metakaolin geopolymeric based masonry blocks,” in Eco-efficient Masonry Bricks and Blocks: Design, Properties and Durability, Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 2015, pp. 329–358.

[64] P. Zhang, Z. Gao, J. Wang, J. Guo, S. Hu, and Y. Ling, “Properties of fresh and hardened fly ash/slag based geopolymer concrete: A review,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 270, pp. 1–21, 2020.

[65] A. F. Abdalqader, F. Jin, and A. Al-Tabbaa, “Characterisation of reactive magnesia and sodium carbonate-activated fly ash/slag paste blends,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 93, pp. 506–513, 2015.

[66] C. C. Ban and T. L. Ee, “Effects of steam curing on strength development of sodium carbonate and sodium silicate activated fly ash/slag mortar,” Journal of Built Environment, Technology and Engineering, vol. 1, pp. 18–24, 2016.

[67] P. Risdanareni, P. Puspitasari, and E. Januarti Jaya, “Chemical and physical characterization of fly ash as geopolymer material,” in MATEC Web Conferences, vol. 97, 2017, pp. 1–8.

[68] S. K. Nath, S. Maitra, S. Mukherjee, and S. Kumar, “Microstructural and morphological evolution of fly ash based geopolymers,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 111, pp. 758–765, 2016.

[69] F. Sajedi and H. A. Razak, “Comparison of different methods for activation of ordinary Portland cement-slag mortars,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 30–38, 2011.

[70] M. Sambucci, A. Sibai, and M. Valente, “Recent advances in geopolymer technology. A potential eco-friendly solution in the construction materials industry: A review,” Journal of Composite Science, vol. 5, no. 4, 2021, Art. no. 109.

[71] M. B. Ogundiran and S. Kumar, “Synthesis of fly ash-calcined clay geopolymers: Reactivity, mechanical strength, structural and microstructural characteristics,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 125, pp. 450–457, 2016.

[72] L. Xiong, Z. Wan, Y. Zhang, F. Wang, and J. Wang, “Fly ash particle size effect on pore structure and strength of fly ash foamed geopolymer,” Advances in Polymer Technology, vol. 2019, 2019, Art. no. 1098027.

[73] P. Chindaprasirt, T. Chareerat, S. Hatanaka, and T. Cao, “High-strength geopolymer using fine high-calcium fly ash,” Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 264–270, 2011.

[74] G. Roviello, L. Ricciotti, O. Tarallo, C. Ferone, F. Colangelo, V. Roviello, and R. Cioffi, “Innovative fly ash geopolymer-epoxy composites: Preparation, microstructure and mechanical properties,” Materials, vol. 9, no. 6, 2016.

[75] X. Dai, S. Aydin, M. Y. Yardimci, and G. De Schutter, “Early structural build-up, setting behavior, reaction kinetics and microstructure of sodium silicate-activated slag mixtures with different retarder chemicals,” Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 159, pp. 1–15, May 2022.

[76] A. Mohajerani, D. Suter, T. Jeffrey-Bailey, T. Song, A. Arulrajah, S. Horpibulsuk, and D. Law, “Recycling waste materials in geopolymer concrete,” Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 493–515, 2019.

[77] S. Sahoo, “A review of activation methods in fly ash and the comparison in context of concrete strength,” Journal of Basic and Applied Engineering Research, vol. 3, no. 10, pp. 883–887, 2016.

[78] A. Fernández-Jiménez, J. G. Palomo, and F. Puertas, “Alkali-activated slag mortars: Mechanical strength behaviour,” Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 29, no. 8, pp. 1313– 1321, 1999.

[79] Q. Mohsen and N. Y. Mostafa, “Investigating the possibility of utilizing low,” Ceramics, vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 160–168, 2010.

[80] A. Fernández-Jiménez, N. Cristelo, T. Miranda, and Á. Palomo, “Sustainable alkali activated materials: Precursor and activator derived from industrial wastes,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 162, pp. 1200–1209, 2017.

[81] M. Nodehi and V. M. Taghvaee, “Alkali-activated materials and geopolymer: A review of common precursors and activators addressing circular economy,” Circular Economy and Sustainability, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 165–196, 2022.

[82] O. Alelweet and S. Pavia, “An evaluation of the feasibility of several industrial wastes and natural materials as precursors for the production of alkali activated materials,” International Journal of Civil and Environmental Engineering, vol. 13, no. 12, pp. 741–748, 2019.

[83] J. Shekhovtsova, “Using South Africa fly ash as a component of alkali-activated binder,” Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Pretoria, 2015.

[84] M. H. Samarakoon, P. G. Ranjith, and V. R. S. De Silva, “Effect of soda-lime glass powder on alkali-activated binders: Rheology, strength and microstructure characterization,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 241, pp. 1–16, Apr. 2020.

[85] P. Duxson, A. Fernández-Jiménez, J. L. Provis, G. C. Lukey, A. Palomo, and J. S. J. Van Deventer, “Geopolymer technology: The current state of the art,” Journal of Material Science, vol. 42, no. 9, pp. 2917–2933, 2007.

[86] Q. Wan, F. Rao, S. Song, R. E. García, R. M. Estrella, C. L. Patino, and Y. Zhang, “Geopolymerization reaction, microstructure and simulation of metakaolin-based geopolymers at extended Si/Al ratios,” Cement and Concrete Composites, vol. 79, pp. 45–52, 2017.

[87] P. He, M. Wang, S. Fu, D. Jia, S. Yan, and J. Yuan, “Effects of Si/Al ratio on the structure and properties of metakaolin based geopolymer,” Ceramics International, vol. 42, no. 13, pp. 14416– 14422, 2016.

[88] J. C. Petermann, A. Saeed, and M. I. Hammons, “Alkali-activated geopolymers: A literature review,” Air force Research Laboratory,Tyndall Airforce base, Florida, USA, AFRL-RX-TYTR- 2010-0097, Feb. 2010.
[89] M. B. Vinayag, A. Aleem, J. Thaarrini, and S. Y. Roja, “Review on strength and durability characteristic of geopolymer concrete with macro silica, nano silica,” International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology, pp. 2088– 2091, 2015.

[90] K. A. Khan, A. Raut, C. R. Chandrudu, and C. Sashidhar, “Design and development of sustainable geopolymer using industrial copper byproduct,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 278, 2021, Art. no. 123565.

[91] M. H. Samarakoon, P. G. Ranjith, T. D. Rathnaweera, and M. S. A. Perera, “Recent advances in alkaline cement binders: A review,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 227, pp. 70–87, Aug. 2019.

[92] M. Criado, A. Fernández-Jiménez, and A. Palomo, “Alkali activation of fly ash. Part III: Effect of curing conditions on reaction and its graphical description,” Fuel, vol. 89, pp. 3185–3192, 2010.

[93] P. Vinodhini, P. Kumaravel, and S. Girija, “Effect of ambient curing in geopolymer concrete,” International Journal of Applied Engineering Research, vol. 10, no. 51, pp. 7–10, 2015.

[94] T. Luukkonen, Z. Abdollahnejad, J. Yliniemi, P. Kinnunen, and M. Illikainen, “One-part alkali-activated materials: A review,” Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 103, pp. 21–34, Jan. 2018.

[95] P. Duxson and J. L. Provis, “Designing precursors for geopolymer cements,” Journal of the American Ceramic Society, vol. 91, no. 12, pp. 3864–3869, 2008.

[96] T. Suwan and M. Fan, “Effect of manufacturing process on the mechanisms and mechanical properties of fly ash-based geopolymer in ambient curing temperature,” Materials and Manufacturing Processes, vol. 32, no. 5, pp. 461–467, 2017.

[97] B. S. Mohammed, S. Haruna, M. Mubarak bn Abdul Wahab, and M. S. Liew, “Optimization and characterization of cast in-situ alkali-activated pastes by response surface methodology,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 225, pp. 776–787, 2019.

[98] J. Ren, H. Sun, Q. Li, Z. Li, L. Ling, X. Zhang, Y. Wang, and F. Xing, “Experimental comparisons between one-part and normal (two-part) alkali-activated slag binders,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 309, 2021, Art. no. 125177.

[99] F. Matalkah, L. Xu, W. Wu, and P. Soroushian, “Mechanochemical synthesis of one-part alkali aluminosilicate hydraulic cement,” Materials and Structures, vol. 50, no. 1, 2017, Art. no. 97.

[100] C. Lu, Q. Wang, Y. Liu, T. Xue, Q. Yu, and S. Chen, “Influence of new organic alkali activators on microstructure and strength of fly ash geopolymer,” Ceramics International, vol. 48, no. 9, pp. 12442–12449, 2022.

[101] A. Naghizadeh and S. O. Ekolu, “Effect of mix parameters on strength of geopolymer mortars-experimental study,” in 6th International Conference on Durability of Concrete Structures, 2018, pp. 315–319.

[102] M. Zerzouri, R. Hamzaoui, L. Ziyani, and S. Alehyen, “Influence of slag based pre-geopolymer powders obtained by mechanosynthesis on structure, microstructure and mechanical performance of geopolymer pastes,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 361, pp. 1–11, 2022.

[103] R. M. Kalombe, V. T. Ojumu, C. P. Eze, S. M. Nyale, J. Kevern, and L. F. Petrik, “Fly ash-based geopolymer building materials for green and sustainable development,” Materials, vol. 13, no. 24, pp. 1–17, 2020.

Full Text: PDF

DOI: 10.14416/j.asep.2023.01.005

Refbacks

  • There are currently no refbacks.